REFLECTIONS ON THE SPIRIT:
AN ESSAY ON PNEUMATOLOGY IN SCRIPTURE AND TRADITION

[another scripture essay by textman]

 God has revealed to us through the Spirit. For the Spirit searches everything, even the depths of God.  For what person knows a man's thoughts except the spirit of the man which is in him? So also no one comprehends the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God. Now we have received not the spirit of the world, but the Spirit which is from God, that we might understand the gifts bestowed on us by God. And we impart this in words not taught by human wisdom but taught by the Spirit, interpreting spiritual truths to those who possess the Spirit. The unspiritual man does not receive the gifts of the Spirit of God, for they are folly to him, and he is not able to understand them because they are spiritually discerned. The spiritual man judges all things, but is himself to be judged by no one. -- 1Cor.2:10-15

CONTENTS:
1. What is Pneumatology?
2. Grasping the Spirit With Trees
3. Spirit in the Old Testament
4. The Greek Spirit
5. Spirit & Creation
6. The Prophet of the Spirit
7. After the Apostolic Age
8. Luther & the Reformation
9. The Advent of Calvin
10. Prophet of the Inner Word
11. Word, Spirit, & Bible
12. Romans, Reformers, & Rebels
13. Wesley's Reformation Pneumatology
14. Spirit & Quadrinity
15. Pneumatology After the Enlightenment
16. The Romish Vision Of The Spirit
17. A Discourse on Spirit & Trinity
Works Cited

1. What is Pneumatology?.

  According to one theological dictionary, "Pneumatology is derived from the Greek words 'pneuma' (spirit) and 'logos' (discourse). In classical philosophy, it refers to the discussion of the nature of the SOUL or the self. In Christian THEOLOGY, it refers to that section of theology dealing with the Holy Spirit" (Harvey 185). So pneumatology is the theological study of the third divine person, and the rational reflection upon the Holy Spirit (ie. Her actions and attributes). It is the disciplined, yet paradoxical, investigation "into what ultimately transcends all our ideas and concepts - the mysterious reality of the Holy Spirit who is at the same time the Spirit of God and Jesus Christ and whom no Church and no theology can ever have at their disposal" (Kung xii). Such study has always been inherently problematic because the Holy Spirit appears to human minds to be less like a person and more like a power or agency. Nevertheless, there is great variety in the activities and manifestations of the Spirit, and this is reflected in the scriptures where the topic of the Holy Spirit is dealt with in different ways by the various biblical authors during the march of centuries wherein a certain development of the theme followed in the wake of God's ongoing providential and historical revelation.

 The two major sources of Christianity's objective knowledge of the Spirit are Revelation and Experience (understood in the most general sense of these terms). More concretely, these two sources refer primarily to the biblical record and to the many ideas and experiences of the Holy Spirit that Christians have seen and felt, and expressed through their lives and writings, over the past two millennia of church- history. In other words, the Bible and shared Christian traditions are the two main resources (or data-bases) of the "theological-science" called 'Pneumatology'.

2. Grasping the Spirit With Trees.

  A listing of the great 'Three Trees' of Christianity, with some of their major branches, might include the following:

1. Greek & Latin -> Russian Orthodox (and many other eastern 'national' types of Orthodoxy), Roman Catholic (and other 'Latin Rite' catholic groups of East and West), Lutheran, Anglican, other 'high-church' communities, etc.

2. Independent or Free --> Arians, Anabaptists, various 'Reformed' churches, Puritans, Quakers, Baptists, Methodists, etc. Fundamentalists and Evangelicals in general.

3. Heterodoxy --> Unofficial or 'secret' societies that are sometimes hunted and persecuted for their beliefs and ways. Often such groups are small in numbers, illiterate, etc. -> Gnostics, Montanists, Cathari, Lollards, Old Believers, Mormon's, JW's, and other assorted outsiders and "heretics".

 While this scheme is sensitive to sociology, politics, culture, and psychology, it likewise reflects the various stages of church history. It is also very useful to Pneurnatology. Here the three 'trees' represent the main categories or types of Pneumatology, each focusing on the particular concerns and orientations of the three sorts of Church groups; with contributions from the various individual believers not affiliated with any recognizable Christian groups (eg. Spinoza, Kierkegaard, Swedenborg, Denck, etc). Thus the third tree will stress the mystery and necessary freedom of the Spirit, where the second tree stresses dynamic preaching and piety, and the first the sacraments, including the order of succession and/or episcopal office (where it is the divinely conferred role or 'office' (rather than the man as such) that carries the authority and/or charism).

 Where then is the Holy Spirit in this bushy mesh made up of traditions and teachers, churches and communities, poets and mystics, theologians and plumblers? The early Christian prophet Paulos of Damascus said that She is wherever Jesus Christ is acknowledged as Lord: "So I want you to understand that no one speaking by the Spirit of God says, 'Jesus is cursed', and no one can say, 'Jesus is Lord', except by the Holy Spirit" (1Cor.12:3/NETbible).

 But perhaps this vision was too wide (ie. it embraces all three trees, and then some) because this answer apparently failed to satisfy many of those 'great in the Church'. And so, when the sheer abundance and diversity of the Faith (in the 2C) became a major threat to its apostolic authenticity and integrity, the battle was on to decide which Christian traditions were to be the guardians of the Faith, and the keepers of its validity and authority. You might say that this was a conflict over the hearts and minds of the rapidly increasing numbers of people who professed 'Jesus is Lord', but it also involved much heavy thinking about the Holy Spirit and how She operates among all these strange and new People of God. Now the eventual victors among all these prolific competitors would prove to be 'the Episcopal party' (ie. rational organization and the inherent and innate conservatism of bureaucracy gave this tradition the edge over their competition).

 In the latter half of the second century, the problem of authority became so acute that on it would ride the future fate of the Faith. This chaotic and dynamic period in early church history (following immediately after the NT-Age (c.50-150CE)) called for some bold statements about the Holy Spirit, and so Irenaeus (the Liar-Bishop of Lyons) was quick to provide them. He proclaims the "duly ordained bishops as guarantors of the Holy Spirit - a position definitively established by the Council of Trent" (Kung ix). The leaders of the Reformation, on the other hand, preferred to locate Her in the sacred text, such that Her function was to maintain the absolute inerrancy of the Scriptures. Against both these extremes, many of the smaller churches have found the Holy Spirit in the experiences of the individual believer, particularly in the 'stirrings of the heart' (eg. John Wesley).

 Now these three positions are here presented and proposed in such a way as to make each appear to be mutually exclusive of the others; but faith and church- history (which embrace all three trees) suggests that the Holy Spirit, blowing wheresoever She wills, can easily move from place to place, from tree to tree, from age to age, from poet to prophet and back again.

3. Spirit in the Old Testament.

  Way-back near the dawn of the Iron Age, Pneumatology was just beginning its slow and steady march through history. But already the seeds of future revelation were contained in the ancient Hebrew word 'Ruach', which means 'wind' or 'breath' or 'air' or 'soul'. Here it is an impersonal force related to 'nephesh' (or the 'blood-soul') which is the 'life-principle'. The ruah-breath is a "subtle corporeality rather than an incorporeal substance" (Congar 3). But the 'ruach' of God is not just an elemental force; it is also Yahweh's principle or agent of personal influence. It always implies that Yahweh is acting upon people and their environment; that is, it involves God's providential immanence and impact on the world (ie. the human social-political-cultural world, and the larger (and more powerful) natural world).

 Now the Spirit of the LORD had turned away from Saul, and an evil spirit from the LORD fell on him. Then the servants of Saul said to him, "Look, an evil spirit from God is falling on you! Let our lord instruct his servants who are here before you to seek a man who knows how to play the lyre. Then whenever the evil spirit from God comes on you, he will play with his hand and it will be better for you." So Saul said to his servants, "Find for me a man who plays well and bring him to me." One of his attendants responded, "I have seen a son of Jesse in Bethlehem who knows how to play a lyre. He is a warrior, a man of war. He is articulate and handsome, and the LORD is with him." So Saul sent messengers to Jesse and said, "Send me your son David, who is out with the sheep. So Jesse took a donkey loaded with bread, a flask of wine, and a kid and sent them to Saul by his son David. David came to Saul and stood before him. He liked him a great deal, and he became an equipment carrier for him. Then Saul sent to Jesse saying, "Let David stay with me, for I like him." And so it was that whenever the spirit from God would come on Saul, David would take his lyre and would play it with his hand. This would bring relief to Saul, and things would improve for him. The evil spirit would depart from him. -- 1Sam.16:14-23/NETbible

 The Spirit (or life-force) is perceived indirectly through "the effects that it, as a principle, produces" (Congar 4). The many and various effects produced in the world and in humanity by way of the Spirit happens by the will and power of God. The Spirit-breath is what causes humankind to act according to God's will. [Later on, when 'ruach' is applied to humans, it denotes 'mind' or 'self'; ie. the centre of personal selfhood or being. This later understanding developed from the earlier meanings as 'mood' or 'temper'.]

 Now David had fled and escaped, going to Samuel in Ramah. He told him everything that Saul had done to him. Then he and Samuel went and stayed at Naioth. It was reported to Saul saying, "David is at Naioth in Ramah." So Saul sent messengers to capture David. When they saw a company of prophets prophesying, with Samuel standing as leader over them, the spirit of God came on Saul's messengers and they too prophesied. When it was reported to Saul, he sent additional messengers. But they too prophesied. Saul once again, for a third time, sent messengers. But they too prophesied. Then he himself went to Ramah. When he arrived at the large well that is in Secu, he asked, "Where are Samuel and David?" They said, "In Naioth at Ramah." So he went there to Naioth at Ramah. The Spirit of God came on him, and he walked along prophesying until he came to Naioth at Ramah. Then he even stripped off his garments and prophesied before Samuel. He fell down naked all that day and night. For that reason it is asked, "Is Saul too among the prophets?" -- 1Sam.19:19-24/NETbible

 Israel's early experiences of the Spirit left a deep impression on the heart and soul of God's people, and a powerful testimony to the lasting impact of the Spirit's influence. These experiences were usually dramatic, powerful, mysterious, and often sinister in nature. The 'Spirit of the LORD' can make men prophesy 'day and night', drive them out into the wilderness, or throw them into ravines without warning or explanation. Later on, the scope of the Spirit's activities came to include politics, understanding and wisdom, and craftsmanship.

4. The Greek Spirit.

  In the so-called 'Intertestamental Period' Greek language and customs followed in the wake of the great general Alexander, and soon allowed for a more rational approach to the many mysteries of the Spirit. The most important development for Pneumatology at this time was the writing of the Septuagint (or LXX) which not only translated the scriptures from Hebrew to Greek (beginning in the third century BCE), but in doing so, provided an important forum for new scriptures in the common tongue (ie. a large part of the so-called apocrypha and pseudepigrapha). But actually, the LXX was not so much a translation as a considered reinterpretation and 'theological upgrading'. A few of the more important Greek words used are: PNEUMA = RUACH; PSYCHE = SOUL; NOUS = MIND; and DAIMON = supernatural spirit (but Hellenistic-Judaism used 'daimon' more specifically to refer to an evil spirit). This latter is in itself a novel development, since demonology is scarce in the Hebrew Tanahk! The LXX itself initiated considerable pneumatological development; for example, by making "a clear distinction between wind, human reason, and spirit" (Schu 29). In general, the marriage of Greek thinking and speaking with Jewish spirituality and passion had a profound and beneficial effect on religion (particularly on Christianity); as can be observed, for example, in the writings of Philo of Alexandria (first century CE).

 Under these new conditions and possibilities Hellenistic-Judaism developed the age-old ideas on inspiration and the gift of reason; chiefly from suggestions contained in the Greek versions of the Tanakh. In Deuteronomy 34, "Joshua is filled by the 'spirit of wisdom' because Moses had laid hands on him and so passed on to Joshua the spirit he had received from God himself" (Schw 20). Isaiah demonstrates that God provides right judgment, even in political affairs; and Daniel's gift of the 'spirit of the holy gods' enables him to interpret signs and dreams, and to rule a kingdom. In Palestine, the struggle for political independence (from their thoughtless and insulting Greek overlords) gave the prophetic promise of a 'new heart' and a 'new spirit' a new urgency. It also became an important element among the fast-boiling apocalyptic hopes and themes.

 Another change arose from the problem inherent in prophetic experience itself (eg. "noisy charlatans"), which led to the suggestion that the Holy Spirit had up and left Israel: "There is no longer any prophet, and there is none among us who knows how long" (Ps 74:9 c.165BCE). Even at the end of the first century CE, it was said that "the prophets have fallen asleep" (Syr.Bar.85:3).

 In Alexandria, however, things were taking a different turn. Here the divine Spirit, God's active presence in the world, is strongest in 'NOUS' (ie. human reason/soul). 'Wisdom' is accordingly a spirit 'intelligent and holy', a "breath of the power of God, and a pure emanation of the glory ..." (Wisdom 7:22f). Although Greek philosophy upset the balance of Old Testament Pneumatology, it always retained a strong secondary role in Diaspora thought. Hence even Philo could say that real knowledge of God came through divine inspiration, and not through reason. But in the Tanakh prophecy remains a kind of 'divine frenzy' (as with the ancient Hebrew prophets).

5. Spirit & Creation.

  For the early Israelites the Spirit was a tangible, sensible reality: the 'spirit-blast of his nostrils', and the 'strong east spirit-wind'. It was more a force 'out there', alien and fearful, rather than an inner agency. Indeed the Spirit was an integral part of the world and its workings. Her role in creation was very wide-ranging. It included everything from the mundane (eg. spring thaw) to the vital (eg. the principle of life in all living things), to the melodramatic (eg. the spirit-storm that sweeps away all evil), to the hopeful (eg. the spirit will create a 'new heart in man').

 But in the intertestamental period the Spirit's work in Creation was de-emphasized, and its prophetic role largely restricted to the recognized biblical prophets. All this meant that the Spirit's work in the present went largely unrecognized. But if the Spirit was no longer with Israel, she was nevertheless expected to return with power in the messianic age. In the New Testament the messianic age is the start of the new creation promised by the prophets of old. It begins with the in-breaking of the Spirit in Jesus; ie. at his baptism by John.

 While Palestinian Judaism hardly advanced her Pneumatology in the Intertestamental Period, the exploration of the possibilities of the prophetic perspective paved the way for the development of the Hellenistic Wisdom school in Diaspora Judaism; as at Alexandria with the Book of Wisdom (just prior to the common era), and Philo in the first century CE. The link between the Pneumatology of the Old Testament and that of the latest pre-New Testament apocrypha and pseudepigrapha is largely by way of the apocalyptic movement that so well reflected the spirit of Israel after Alexander the Great. One good example of a transitional point midway, in time and theology, between the last prophets and the 'Book of Wisdom' can be found in 1Enoch (c 250bce), where the 'breath of the mouth' is given by God to humankind that we may speak with it and have 'understanding within the heart'

 But in the Greek documents of the New Testament the movement towards the 'internalization of the spirit' is fully realized. For John the Evangelist, the 'new birth' in the Spirit is the awakening of faith:

 Jesus answered, "I tell you the solemn truth, unless a person is born of water and spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God. What is born of the flesh is flesh, and what is born of the Spirit is spirit. Do not be amazed that I said to you, 'You must all be born from above.' The wind blows wherever it will, and you hear the sound it makes, but do not know where it comes from and where it is going. So it is with everyone who is born of the Spirit." -- John 3:5-8 / NETbible

 Now Jesus did not teach a Pneumatology as such, and indeed said very little about the Holy Spirit; but the 'signs and wonders' that accompanied his public ministry showed that he lived in the power of the Spirit: "He came to Jesus at night and said to him, 'Rabbi, we know that you are a teacher who has come from God. For no one could perform the miraculous signs that you do unless God is with him'" (John 3:2 / NETbible). After the Ascension, the Lord poured out this power, and baptised his followers with the Holy Spirit. Thus the Spirit was seen as THE gift of God, given by grace to those who believe and obey.

 John also contrasts the 'life from the flesh' with the life 'born of the Spirit'. Here the Spirit "is to be found in the words of Jesus which are 'spirit and life' (6:63; see 3:34)" (Kung xiv). Only the Spirit flowing from the Crucified One can lead men and women to the truth. For John "there is just one gift of the Spirit: the knowledge of Jesus" (Kung xv). The new birth from the Spirit means that the resurrection life has already been attained. All things are given in faith by the power of God.

 For Paul, the Spirit reveals the Crucified One, and is a gift given to all believers (eg. in various ways; such as the Spirit of Holiness). For Luke, the Spirit also acts as an aid to the preaching of the Gospel, giving it power and truth and compelling force so as to covert, redeem, convict, and save. Thus for the New Testament in general, the Spirit is primarily God's gracious presence at work in the world, but epecially within the human heart.

6. The Prophet of the Spirit.

  In many ways Paul's achievement was a new departure for Pneumatology. Of all the biblical authors, none speak about the Holy Spirit as much as he does; and his influence upon later Christian authors was profound (as the above quote from John 3:5-8 clearly demonstrates).  Paul's pneumatology is primarily soteriological and christological (the two are closely bound together), and (secondarily) ecclesiological. While Luke remained more in tune with the traditional prophetic understanding of Judaism, Paul's spirit-thinking is more in line with the Wisdom-prophetic tradition: "It is hard enough for us to work out what is on earth, laborious to know what lies within our reach; who, then, can discover what is in the heavens? As for your intention, who could have learnt it, had you not granted Wisdom, and sent your holy spirit from above?" (Wis 9:16-17) [Note: compare with 1Cor.2:10ff]

 For Paul, the Spirit is a tangible reality in the life of the new People of God.  The manifestations or effects of the Spirit's influence upon believers are many and profound. In general, these effects fall into two categories: (1) 'the gifts', which are external (visible) spiritual realities given to individual believers for the benefit of the entire assembly; and (2) 'the fruits', which are internal (subjective) spiritual realities (eg. virtues) which involve a person's character, demeanor, attitude, and/or personality. Foremost among the 'free gifts of the Spirit' are the 'charisms': preaching with wisdom, prophecy, right teaching, healing and exorcism (and other related miracles), discernment of spirits, the gift of tongues (along with the necessary interpretation of same), etc. Paul's ordering of these gifts by relative weight or value suggests that the more important charisms are those that are best for the whole assembly:

 Now there are different gifts, but the same Spirit. And there are different ministries, but the same Lord. And there are different results, but the same God who produces all of them in everyone. To each person the manifestation of the Spirit is given for the benefit of all. For one is given through the Spirit the message of wisdom, and another the message of knowledge according to the same Spirit, to another faith by the same Spirit, and to another gifts of healing by the one Spirit, to another performance of miracles, to another prophecy, and to another discernment of spirits, to another different kinds of tongues, and to another the interpretation of tongues. It is one and the same Spirit, distributing to each person as he decides, who produces all these things. -- 1Cor.12:4-11 / NETbible

 The communal aspect of the charisms (or gifts of the Spirit) is balanced by the 'fruits of the Spirit', where the Spirit is more involved with individual being (eg. by way of inspiring joy, peace, goodness, kindness, etc): "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control" (Gal 5:22-23/NETbible).

 And for Paul, knowledge and faith are especially valuable and important gifts; and this insight was later developed (ie. in the early second century CE) by the Greek-Christian prophets of Egypt:

 I can pray this because his divine power has bestowed on us everything necessary for life and godliness through the rich knowledge of the one who called us by his own glory and excellence. Through these things he has bestowed on us his precious and most magnificent promises, so that by means of what was promised you may become partakers of the divine nature, after escaping the worldly corruption that is produced by evil desire. For this very reason, make every effort to add to your faith excellence, to excellence, knowledge; to knowledge, self-control; to self-control, perseverance; to perseverance, godliness; to godliness, brotherly affection; to brotherly affection, unselfish love. For if these things are really yours and are continually increasing, they will keep you from becoming ineffective and unproductive in your pursuit of knowing our Lord Jesus Christ more intimately. -- 2Peter 1:3-8 / NETbible

Now there are two things about Paul's pneumatology that every believer should know. The first is that Paul is NOT a trinitarian! This is apparent in many passages, and the following bible-byte can be considered typical of Paul's non-trinitarianism: "Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, and Timothy our brother. To the church of God which is at Corinth, with all the saints who are in the whole of Achaia: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ ..." (2Cor.1:1-3/RSV). In his epistles, then, 'God' always refers to the God of Jesus Christ, who is the Heavenly Father.  Jesus is 'Lord', 'Messiah' (Christ), and 'Son of God'; but none of this implies an equality of deity with the Father. Recognizing that Jesus is divine is one thing; claiming that he is 'consubstantial' (ie. of one essence and/or substance) with the Father is altogether a different matter.

 As for the Spirit, Paul does not regard Her as an autonomous deity or person in Her own right. In fact, he never refers to the Holy Spirit as a 'who' at all. [Note: Some modern translations 'correct' Paul on this score so as to make it appear that he is a trinitarian after all; see for example 1Cor.2:12 and 2Cor.3:18.] But the interesting thing is that Paul explicitly identifies the Spirit with Jesus: "Now the Lord is the Spirit, and where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is freedom. And all of us, with unveiled faces, seeing the glory of the Lord as though reflected in a mirror, are being transformed into the same image from one degree of glory to another; for this comes from the Lord, the Spirit"  (2Cor.3:17-18 / NRSV). So in that sense there *is* a recognition of the personhood of the Spirit. But, in general, Paul's thought suggests that the Spirit is a divine power or agency that acts upon (or rather, within) believers.

 To make matters worse, the second thing that the believer must bear in mind, Paul sometimes speaks of the Spirit of (or from) God, and at other times of the Spirit of (or from) the Lord (or Christ). And sometimes the switch is immediate, as in Romans: "But you are not in the flesh, you are in the Spirit, if in fact the Spirit of God dwells in you. Any one who does not have the Spirit of Christ does not belong to him." (8:9/RSV). Now one might logically suppose that these are two separate and distinct Spirit's, but Paul's talk of 'one Spirit' suggests that in both cases we are dealing with the same entity:

 To one is given through the Spirit the utterance of wisdom, and to another the utterance of knowledge according to the same Spirit, to another faith by the same Spirit, to another gifts of healing by the one Spirit, to another the working of miracles, to another prophecy, to another the ability to distinguish between spirits, to another various kinds of tongues, to another the interpretation of tongues. All these are inspired by one and the same Spirit, who apportions to each one individually as he wills. For just as the body is one and has many members, and all the members of the body, though many, are one body, so it is with Christ. For by one Spirit we were all baptized into one body - Jews or Greeks, slaves or free - and all were made to drink of one Spirit. -- 1Cor.12:8-13/RSV [see also 1Cor.6:17;12:4]

 For Paul, this Spirit of the Lord reveals the Crucified One as the power and wisdom of God. Moreover, the Spirit has a central role in his anthropology. Thus there are two types of human living: there is life 'according to the flesh', which is opposed to life 'through the Spirit' (which produces the 'fruits' and charisms of the Spirit). Hence, in Jesus Christ the true believer becomes the new temple of the Spirit. The Spirit directs our being towards God, while the Flesh turns us away from God. For Paul, spiritual experience is not so much about signs and wonders; as a holy way of life: "If we live by the Spirit, let us also walk by the Spirit" (Gal.5:25/RSV).

7. After the Apostolic Age.

  In the second century, after John's Gospel and epistles, some progress was also made by the Greek Apologists, and others (eg. Irenaeus and Tertullian); and in the third century Origen laid the foundations for centuries of fruitful theological growth (especially in Alexandria). By the time that the Cappadocians, Athanasius, and Augustine finished their pneumatological contributions, all the essential ingredients of a developed doctrine of the Holy Spirit were in place. Thus, with the settlement of the early conciliar controversies, the only external pressure challenging the still emergent orthodoxy came from isolated, but not completely powerless, groups of 'heretical enthusiasts' (for want of a better term), such as the Montanists.

 The period of the Greek Apologists (second century CE) overlaps the last stages of the composition of the New Testament documents, and so it is hardly surprising that their thoughts on the Holy Spirit are as varied and ambiguous as those of the NT authors themselves. If there is one quality or characteristic that is shared by the scriptures and the Apologists, it is the awareness that the Spirit is fundamentally prophetic in nature and action.  Thus it is as " the Spirit of prophecy and scriptural revelation that Justin declares that Christians honor the Spirit in the 'third rank' after the Creator and the Logos" (C-J 37). For Tatian, the "salvation of believers is the work of the divine Spirit.  The human spirit is raised to the heavenly sphere by becoming united with the Spirit of God.  This 'Spirit', however, is not distinguished from the Logos ..." (C-J 37). But Tatian, like Athenagoras and Justin, lays stress on the prophetic function of the Spirit. Yet even here the distinction between Logos and Spirit remains unclear: "The functions of each are interchangeable, so that Spirit and Logos can both be regarded as the source of the prophets' inspiration ..." (C-J 37). Thus Theophilus (who first used the term 'Trinity' (ie. triad) of the Father, Logos, and Wisdom) "speaks of the Logos as 'Spirit of God, Wisdom and Power of the Most High, who came down upon the prophets and through them spoke of the making of the world'" (C-J 38). In general then, the Apologists drew upon the resources of the wisdom-literature to conceive of the Holy Spirit as the 'second hand' of God, the Wisdom-Spirit.

 Even in the late fourth century CE the question of the deity of the Holy Spirit remained largely undecided. Some regarded the Spirit as a divine operation, others as a creature, others as God, while some refused all these options on the grounds that scripture provides no clear-cut definitions. The leading theologians of the day recognized the difficulty of making any definitive or absolute statements about the Holy Spirit, but some things could be reasonably deduced from what was known. Thus Basil of Caesarea, in his treatise 'On the Holy Spirit', concludes that "the Spirit cannot possibly be reckoned among creatures, for he operates what is proper to God and is reckoned with, and not below, the Father and Son in the regular worship of Christians" (C-J 112). He also says "that the Spirit, who is glorified with the Father and the Son, is holy by nature, just as the Father is holy and the Son is holy, that he must not be separated from the Father and the Son ..." (C-J 112). Well, I guess that's progress of sorts. But the big issues of the day were the questions of 'ousia' and 'hypostasis' and the so-called 'procession' of the Spirit; but we have no interest in such theological stupidities.

 For the next thousand years various 'spiritual' groups hovered around the edges of Christendom, continuing the tradition of heterodoxical challenge. But in the Latin West, the enthusiasts inspired violence rather than theological renewal and progress. Only with the advent of the Reformation did Enthusiasm come into full bloom, and force a more considered reaction from the leaders of the mainline Reformation churches.

 Now this bare review of the history of pneumatology may suggest a rather sluggish and reluctant movement forward (or in circles?), determined by soteriological concerns, and that doctrinal statements and official pronouncements by the Latin and Greek Councils did not always clarify the issues, and were more or less forged in an atmosphere of conflict, political intrigue, and quick tempers, all baked in a not entirely spiritual furnace. Nevertheless, after the dust settled down, the churches' episcopal creeds and documents carried great weight far and wide, East and West; and these uninspired declarations determined the shape of pneumatological thought for the next thousand years.

 For example, according to Thomas Aquinas, the grace of the Holy Spirit, given through faith in Jesus Christ, is the Law of the new covenant; it is "written in the heart, as interior law that moves us from within, and therefore a law of freedom." This freedom is realized in many ways, including the charisms, and also in the service of others (hence the 'freedom of slavery'); but especially in the freedom of "a love that renounces self even in the situation of persecution and suffering." The virtues of perseverance, patience and endurance - all of which Paul had plenty of - demonstrate the inner freedom from the worldly power, and evil forces "that press on us from without." Thus the Holy Spirit is "often described both in scripture (John 15f.) and in tradition as strength (robur) for resistance" (Kas 228). This means that the Universal Father's Kingdom "extends beyond and embraces more than the visible church. Wherever there is love, the Spirit of God is at work, and the reign of Christ becomes a reality even without institutional forms and formulas" (Kas 229). [cf. 'Summary of Theology' by Thomas Aquinas: book three (8,3)]

8. Luther & the Reformation.

  From the first century to the sixteenth, many individuals and informal groups (including underground or illegal churches) and publicly organized heretical churches, etc, altogether contributed to pneumatology a bewildering variety of philosophies, theologies, prophecies, apocalypses, new social and religious forms and behaviors, and so on. Truly, there is no end to the creative effect the Spirit can have on human beings, both individually and collectively. The thing is - being also a nightmare for the historian - very, very little of all this bizarre stuff was ever written down; and the little that was, more often than not, wound up in the fire. Because of this profound gap - sixteen centuries large - in our knowledge of Secret and Illiterate Christianity, it would be foolish indeed to label all these people as Enthusiasts or Spiritualists or Pneumists or whatnot. The sheer diversity of religious and theological and social forms precludes the possibility of any common trait discernable in all, except perhaps for one. Whether heretic or not, prophet true or false, calling for the end of the World or not; all were Christians more or less, and so had some small measure of contact with the Holy Spirit.

 In any case, the Reformation retained the traditional doctrines on the Holy Spirit (even the 'filioque'), but at the same time interest in the Holy Spirit took on "a new centrality owing directly to the fundamental insights of the Reformation." In mainstream Protestant theology this was expressed in the doctrine of the work of the Holy Spirit, and involved concentrating "with a new intensity on what the Spirit enables and performs" (Heron 99). For example, as to Scripture, the Holy Spirit is the Enlightener; as to Justification, the Holy Spirit is the Sanctifier.

 For the Reformers, the Holy Spirit was necessarily bound up with all the central themes of the Reformation: faith and grace, justification and redemption, sanctification and the authority of Scripture. For Luther, to be "justified by faith is to be justified solely by the free grace of God; it is to depend on Christ alone for salvation; it is therefore something that only God can perform, realize, and make effective" (Heron 100). It is unlikely that Paul would object to any of this. Indeed, Luther's great discovery and innovation is essentially little more than the recovery of Paul's Gospel; hence it is Paul's prophetic thinking on the Spirit that most influenced the Pneumatology of the Reformers.

9. The Advent of Calvin.

  In the past three thousand years or so of Pneumatology, the long and slow development finally crystallized in the sixteenth century with John 'the Aquinas of the Reformation' Calvin. Like his famous Catholic predecessor, Calvin was the great synthesizer and mediator of the best in Christian traditions. The strength of Calvin's systematic Pneumatology lay not only with his recovery of Paul, but also with his Pauline Christocentric hermeneutics. His considered exploration of the Spirit's work is contained in the third book of his 1559 edition of 'The Institutes of the Christian Religion'.

 For Calvin, the Holy Spirit is not merely the third person of the Trinity, but also the indispensible link or bridge between our 'first born brother' and us, 'bone of his bone and flesh of his flesh'. For "it is by the Spirit alone that he [ie. the Saviour] unites himself to us. By the same grace and energy of the Spirit we become his members ..." (B3.i.3). This same Spirit is also the bridge between the Christian and the Word (ie. of Scripture), for it is not the authority and judgment of the Church that confers credibility upon the Scriptures, but rather "... our conviction of the truth of Scripture must be derived from a higher source than human guesswork, opinions and arguments, namely the hidden witness of the Spirit" (B1.ii.7). This 'witness' is not a proof from without (ie. external evidence to convince the unbeliever), but is "inwardly taught by the Holy Spirit":

 As God alone can truly bear witness to his own words, so these words will not be given complete acknowledgment in the hearts of men, until they are sealed by the inner witness of the Spirit. So the same Spirit, who spoke by the mouth of the prophets, must pervade our hearts, in order to convince us that they faithfully passed on the message entrusted to them by God. This link is best expressed by Isaiah in this way: "My Spirit, who is on you, and my words that I have put in your mouth will not depart from your mouth, or from the mouths of your children or from the mouths of their descendants from this time on and for ever" (Isa. 59:21). ... 5. We have established that those who are inwardly taught by the Holy Spirit accept Scripture implicitly, that Scripture, taking its own evidence along with it, does not stoop to be assessed by evidence and argument, but owes the absolute conviction with which we ought to receive it, to the testimony of the Spirit. Enlightened by him we no longer have to rest on our own judgment or that of others, that the Scriptures are from God. Rather we can feel completely sure, in a way far above human opinion and just as though we could see God's picture stamped on them, that they came to us from the very mouth of God, using men as his instruments. -- B1.ii.7

 But while Calvin rightly stresses that the authority of the Holy Spirit does not depend upon the churches and their traditions, he was also aware that some believers were quite prepared to make a strong distinction between Spirit and Word, as if these two could somehow contradict each other. Calvin refers to these free enthusiasts as "fanatics who substitute revelations for Scripture". Far better it is to seek the Spirit in the Word, than the Spirit within us:

1. ... The work of the Spirit promised to us is not to create new and unfamiliar revelations, or to coin some novel type of teaching by which we may be led away from the received doctrine of the Gospel, but to seal on our minds the very doctrine which the Gospel recommends. 2. So it is easy to understand that we must give careful attention both to the reading and hearing of Scripture if we want to get any benefit from the Spirit of God (just as Peter praises those who study prophetic teaching in depth (2Pet.1:19) although the light of the Gospel could be thought to take its place). Any spirit which bypasses the truth of God's Word, and suggests any other doctrine, is rightly suspected of pride and deceit. Since Satan transforms himself into an angel of light, what authority can the Spirit have over us unless he can be recognised by the same infallible sign? In fact he is singled out by the Lord with great clarity, but those wretched people go astray as if determined to destroy themselves by seeking the Spirit from themselves rather than from him. -- B1.ii.9

 It is safe to say, then, that Calvin would not approve of the Quaker doctrine of the 'Inner Light', not because they are wrong about the reality of the Inner Light (ie. the Holy Spirit within), but because they give more authority to their own fancies (which they imagine to be spirit-inspired) than to the Scriptures (which is the very Word of God). The Spirit cannot contradict itself, for truth is truth, but Calvin errs somewhat, I think, in supposing that the Spirit no longer inspires (Christian) prophets, but is quite content to remain bound up (as it were) within the pages of the Holy Bible. In fact, the Spirit cannot be contained by any book, even though She continues to witness to the truth therein.

10. Prophet of the Inner Word.

 Now Calvin's "fanatics" were not the 17C 'Society of Friends', but rather their 16C predecessors among the early Anabaptists of the Radical Reformation (the so-called 'left-wing' of the Reformation). One of the early leaders among this left-wing was Hans Denck; a young man who was far more a scholar than a fanatic. Having inherited the idea of the 'Inner Word' (which God speaks from the depths of the human heart and soul), by way of the 14C and 15C mystics (eg. Tauler), Denck combined these mystical conceptions with the new humanistic vision of human nature, and so came to teach a new type of Christianity. Now Denck's religion begins not with theology, but with the experience of "an inner witness which God had planted within him, a spark of the Divine Light breaking into his own soul, and in the strength of this direct experience he denied the value of external ceremonies, and declared that even the Bible itself cannot bring men to God without the assistance of this inner Light and Spirit" (Jones 20).

 None of this is really in contradiction with the best insights of traditional Christianity, and even Calvin's theology contains many similar statements and observations. The point at which Calvin and Denck begin to diverge is on the question of human nature. For Denck, the most fundamental fact about human nature is that the individual is in possession of personal freedom. Denck protests the idea of 'election' because it involves "a limitation of the love of God". God does not compel anyone to embrace salvation, but rather people, by their own free choices, decide their own eternal destiny. God is not the author of evil, and ordains no one to sin.  Salvation involves an inner transformation whereby we attain a measure of harmony with the will of God. Christians, in other words, are those "in whom the Holy Ghost lives" such that they are "one with Christ in God, and are like Christ. They will therefore have similar experiences, and what Christ did they will also do".

 The fundamental spiritual reality then, is the Spirit-witness within the human heart: "The Light shines, the invisible Word of God is uttered in the hearts of all men who come into the world, and this Light gives all men freedom and power to become children of God" (Jones 24). "All who are saved are of one spirit with God, and he who is the foremost in love is the foremost of those who are saved." For Denck, salvation is not the result of any transaction, but is a lifelong process that intimately involves personal character, attitude, behavior, and will. Here Denck flatly denies the Lutheran dogma of 'imputed righteousness': "Nothing can be 'imputed' to a man which is not ethically and morally present as a living feature of his character and conduct. ... He who does not witness to Christ in his daily walk grows into a different person from the one he is called to be" (Jones 26). The soul must hear and see and feel the illumination of the Inner Word, and by cooperating with it (ie. adjusting our personal will to the will of God) we "learn to behave as a child of God".

 As for the sacraments and ceremonies of traditional Christianity, these have no spiritual significance, and indeed are little more than mere superstition: "All externals must yield to love, for they are for the sake of love, and not love for their sake." Denck's religion is thus not an outward legal or social religion (ie. a religion of the letter; such as Catholicism *and* Anabaptism) but a religion of the spirit. "He who has not the Spirit and who fails to find Him in the Scriptures, seeks life and finds death; seeks light and finds darkness, whether it be in the Old or in the New Testament." For Denck, the Inner Light has more authority and meaning than the scriptures because it is the living, eternal, and powerful Word of God, being "Spirit and no letter, written without pen or paper so that it can never be destroyed. For that reason, salvation is not bound up with the scriptures, however necessary and good they may be for their purpose, because it is impossible for the scriptures to make good a bad heart, even though it may be a learned one. A good heart, however, with a Divine Spark in it is improved by everything, and to such the scriptures will bring blessedness and goodness." The scriptures, then, are the external Word; but it is the internal Word written in the human heart that saves and helps us grow in likeness to the divine image revealed in Christ.

 From all of this is it is apparent that Denck's religion is aggressively Spirit-centered, and built upon the firm foundation of all authentic Christian faith; namely, the love of God and the love of neighbor. Few prophets before or since have seen so clearly the essential truths of the authentic Faith; and it is a measure of the corruption of post-modern Christianity that this prophet of true religion is now all but completely forgotten.

11. Word, Spirit, & Bible.

  As to the relationship between Spirit and Scripture, Luther - like Aquinas before him - followed Augustine, and said that the Bible conveys the Word of God "only as the Spirit makes us able to hear it; otherwise it is but a dead letter, a purely external word which cannot save because it does not evoke a living faith" (Heron 105). Now this is essentially the same thing that both Denck and Calvin taught, but in reaction to the "extreme" radical-reformers (whose leaders Luther sarcastically called the "heavenly prophets"), Luther bound together the 'outward word' and the 'inner testimony' such that any attempt to drive a wedge between Spirit and Scripture is - by definition - a sin against the Holy Spirit. But Denck was not out to drive a wedge 'between Spirit and Scripture'. All he did was to make clear that there IS a distinction to be made here, and that the greater authority must go to the Living Spirit (who is God). To do anything else is to fall into idolatry; the Bible is NOT God! Yet the reformers were not at all pleased with this distinction (and its significance for the Faith), and so they elected to do away with Denck's necessary distinction between Spirit and Scripture by binding the two so closely together that they can never be parted.

 Thus Calvin took up this fight against 'the fanatics', and maintained that the Word can only be found within the Bible. This is not to subordinate the Spirit to the 'dead letter' (he claims), but rather a clear recognition of "the inner consistency of the Spirit, who both inspired the Scriptures and enables the reception of the Word in faith" (Heron 105-6). "The Spirit is the uniter of inner and outer, past and present, written Word and faith's hearing, Christ and ourselves" (Heron l06). But while all this is certainly true, the so-called "inner consistency of the Spirit" in no way implies that the Word can only be found within the pages of the Holy Bible. On the contrary, truth is always consistent with itself, and can be found wheresoever truth exists. We know that the same applies to the Holy Spirit, for is She not also called 'The Spirit of Truth'?

 In contrast to Calvin, the documents of the Council of Trent have remarkably little to say about the "theological relationship of Word and Spirit and to the significance of this relationship for the existence of the Church" (Kung 48). This was not because the Catholic Church was lacking for challenges, but simply that her corrupt leaders continued on in "this chronic state of pneumatological underdevelopment" (Kung 49). One could hardly expect the popes, cardinals, and bishops to do otherwise; seeing as how they were all consumed by lust for money and power and worldly glory!

12. Romans, Reformers, & Rebels.

  On the other hand, the Reformers responded to the challenges presented to them from the other two 'faith-trees'. The Augsburg Confession "explicitly marks off the conviction of the Reformers from the spiritualized Pneumatology of the enthusiasts. ... it also implicitly marks off their teaching from the Pneumatology of the Roman tradition with its strong emphasis on canon law" (Kung 35). The Reformers had to take control of the Spirit out of the hands of the elite (ie. special individuals such as bishops and elect, pure, or 'holy ones') and place it back where it belongs. That is, the Spirit is not bound to the visible Church as a hierarchical institution as such, but rather She is bound to the Church via the "bodily word of the gospel in baptism, preaching and the Lord's Supper" (Kung 38). This is sheer nonsense, of course, for the Spirit is in no way 'bound' to 'things' at all, but rather resides only within the believing heart of individuals who together form the church; for the church is not popes and preachers and sacraments and scriptures, but the collective faith of all who believe on the Name of the Lord.

 But the sixteenth century 'Spiritualists' and Radical-Reformers hungered for an immediacy and intimacy in their relationship with God that could not be contained within the rigid and narrow bounds set by the great Reformers. This meant a necessary "relativization not only of the institutional church but also of the Bible, in favour of the present operation of the Spirit" (Kung 50). This trend reached its logical conclusion in England in the following century with George Fox and the Society of Friends (aka Quakers). In time, the Baptist groups rejected this path (in favor of mass religion), and concentrated authority into the most objective of spiritual realities. Thus the Bible itself became the norm of the Christian religion as a whole. This novel and liberating idea insured the 'free churches' a wide popularity in the American colonies (where there was a relative freedom from the oppressive mainline churches of Europe). Thus these new-age Christians became 'the people of the book' with a vengeance.

 Now this Bible-based Christianity that came out of the Reformation was something completely new to Church history. It could not have emerged before the sixteenth century simply because wide-spread literacy and the printing press were the necessary material causes that allowed for the possibility of the development of this novel and 'independant' form of Christian existence. For Pneumatology, this meant a recovery and reworking of the best ideas to be found in the New Testament. Basically, this new synthesis of the biblical revelation was driven by a careful reappraisal of Paul and John:

  John Wesley's interest in the Holy Spirit was largely pragmatic. His Pneumatology revolves around the work (or 'offices') of the Spirit. Thus the 'main office' is "his" work in believers. For example, he brings believers "to a conviction of sin - normally through preaching and miracles" (Williams 98). But his main task is to reveal the truth about Jesus Christ, and to help us receive Christ as Lord. Thus it is the Spirit's 'experimental assurance' that allows us to believe in Christ. Wesley here makes an important distinction between justification (which is what God does for us through His Son) and sanctification (which is what God works in us by His Spirit). Therefore "sanctification results from our inward appropriation of Christ's saving work, and this is the work of the Holy Spirit, whom Christ has sent to transform us into his (Christ's) likeness" (Wil 100). This transforming work of the Spirit begins with conversion (which is the 'new birth'), whereat the 'eyes of his understanding are opened' and 'he sees the light of the glory of God'. Now his 'ears are opened to the inward voice of God' and ' he feels in his heart the mighty working of the Spirit'.

 Being born of the Spirit is thus "the great change which God works in the soul when He brings it into life; when He raises it from the death of sin to the life of righteousness. ... In a word, it is that change whereby the earthly, sensual, devilish mind is turned into the 'mind which was in Christ Jesus'" (Wil 102). Related to this new birth is the 'Witness of the Spirit' whereby conversion is accompanied by an assurance of personal salvation based upon "a sure trust and confidence in God, that, through the merits of Christ, my sins are forgiven ..." (Wil 103). This assurance is given by the Holy Spirit, and that is why Wesley calls it 'the witness of the Spirit'.

 The strength of Wesley's pneumatology lies in his efforts to ground his thinking in human experience as it actually is. Thus we have the strange situation wherein the main work of the Spirit is, on the one hand, to convict believers of their sin, and on the other hand, to assure them that their sins are forgiven. This ambiguity (not to say seeming outright contradiction) may not be very logical or theologically consistent, but it is certainly consistent with the radical ambiguity and irrationality of human existence in general!

 But the weakness of Wesley's pneumatology is that it is too much the product of the Reformation age. So while traces of Denck's theology can be found as far back as the Greek Apologists, there is little apparent awareness on Wesley's part of prior Christian traditions (ie. theologies) regarding the Holy Spirit (ie. other than the orthodox creedal formulations (which really don't say much about the Holy Spirit)). Thus, in Wesley's pneumatology there is no overt awareness that part of the Spirit's work is (as it always was) to inspire the prophets to speak the truth to every generation. The Spirit of Prophecy is not a thing that can be simply forgotten or grow obsolete. The eternal Spirit does not change from one generation to the next.  If She was the Wisdom-Spirit of ancient Israel, She remains the Wisdom-Spirit even unto this very day. Yes, we can grow in our knowledge of the person, nature, and activities of the Holy Spirit, but we can't just ignore or forget that the Spirit of Truth is also the one and the same Spirit of Prophecy.

14. Spirit & Quadrinity.

  The traditional understanding of the Holy Spirit firmly places Her person and function into a clearly subordinate role within the Quadrinity (ie. Father, Son, Church, Spirit ... in that order!): "For the life that has its origin in the Father, and is given to us in the Son, is made our interior, personal possession by the Holy Spirit, operating through the ministry of the church" (Kas l98). Although orthodox doctrine clearly states that the three persons of the Godhead (ie. the Trinity) are equal in *all* respects, in theology (as in daily life) this actually means that the Holy Spirit is equal to the other two only in *most* respects. Hence her 'non-subordinate' subordinate position in the Quadrinity; which can be established in various ways. Kasper mentions a whole series of interesting details that demonstrate the "real intellectual difficulties in Pneumatology." They also explain why the Spirit has this unofficial inferior status:

 1. The widespread confusion over Her gender; even Kasper gets this part wrong. [Arguments for the use of 'he' are certainly traditional, but not at all convincing!]

 2. Like the Bible-based Christians who control the Holy Spirit by way of a too-intimate (even idolatrous) attachment to Holy Writ, so the mainline Christians control the Spirit by way of forgetfullness; which allows 'the triad God-Christ-Church' to replace 'the triad Father-Son-Spirit', and justifies the observation that She is 'the unknown God'.

 3. The mysteriousness of the Holy Spirit means that it is difficult to form a compelling image of Her ('fire' and 'dove' are the best we can do). The result is that "we have no concrete grasp of the Spirit" (Kas 198). [And yet, like Woman, the Spirit is both docile and submissive!]

15. Pneumatology After the Enlightenment.

  Ever since the great 'Age of the Spirit' first began (at the time of Zoroaster, Elijah, Lao Tzu, Socrates, Buddha, etc), only a tiny fraction of people ever doubted the reality of spirit and its tangible influence within many aspects of daily life. In Greek thought especially, the Spirit-World was the only truly real and eternal world; the very source of all Truth, Beauty, and Goodness. Only in the past two or three centuries has Western civilization led countless peoples in the way against this universal gnosis. But before the full force of skepticism (and its logical conclusion: nihilism) set in - about twenty-five years into the twentieth century (ie. a generation after Neitzsche's death) - pneumatology had reached unparalleled heights of passionate expression in the Romantic Movement (eg. Goethe, Schleiermacher, Blake, etc). The most explicit expression of the spirit of this movement came in the work of G.W.F. Hegel, a German philosopher-theologian who was a great synthesizer and 'maker of systems' (not unlike Aquinas and Calvin).

 In this modern 'philosophy of spirit', "spirit even became the dominant basic concept; spirit was for it the totality that gave meaning and unity and grounded everything else amid the multiplicity of phenomena." But the 'candle that burns twice as bright, burns half as long'; and soon the idealist interpretation of spirit yielded the field to a materialistic and evolutionary understanding of all things. It was the rising power of technology and science that demanded a positivistic interpretation of the world and everything in it. This meant a total "renunciation of the concept of 'spirit' because of its multiplicity of meanings and the impossibility of providing an exact definition of it" (Kasper 199). This has led to the theological re-orientation of pauline anthropology in terms of philosophical categories; as with F.C.Baur using Hegel, and R.Bultmann using Heidegger. Hence today, Pneumatology labors on under a serious handicap: a world that has lost all sense of the Spirit, and thus its bearings and foundations as well ...

16. The Romish Vision Of The Spirit.

  Four centuries after the Council of Trent the Roman Catholic Church (RCC) finally managed  to issue a new catechism, called 'Catechism of the Catholic Church', which very quickly became an international best-seller. As far as pneumatology goes, the new catechism is a rich resource for statements regarding the Holy Spirit. So much so, in fact, that an exhaustive review of all the relevant material is simply not possible here. Consequently, we shall have to confine our attention to only a few points of interest. A good place to begin is with the various names of the Holy Spirit as seen through the eyes of the catechism authors:

"Titles of the Holy Spirit  692  When he proclaims and promises the coming of the Holy Spirit, Jesus calls him the 'Paraclete', literally, 'he who is called to one's side', ad-vocatus. 'Paraclete' is commonly translated by 'consoler', and Jesus is the first consoler. The Lord also called the Holy Spirit 'the Spirit of truth'.  693  Besides the proper name of 'Holy Spirit', which is most frequently used in the 'Acts of the Apostles' and in the Epistles, we also find in St. Paul the titles: the Spirit of the promise, the Spirit of adoption, the Spirit of Christ, the Spirit of the Lord, and the Spirit of God - and, in St. Peter, the Spirit of glory " (CCC 200).

 The only criticism we can offer on this passage is that while it relies heavily on biblical resources, the catechism seems entirely unaware that 1Peter was not authored by the apostle Simon-Peter, but rather by a second generation Christian writing in his name; which was a common practice in those days, and not at all unusual among the New Testament documents.

 Now the relationship between the Holy Spirit and prophecy is a matter of immense importance to post-modern believers, so we shall now examine church teaching on this vital topic, which begins with a brief exposition on who the RCC understands the prophets to be: "By 'prophets' the faith of the Church here understands all whom the Holy Spirit inspired in the composition of the sacred books, both of the Old and the New Testaments. Jewish tradition distinguishes first the Law (the five first books or Pentateuch), then the Prophets (our historical and prophetic books) and finally the Writings (especially the wisdom literature, in particular the Psalms)" (CCC 203).

 Besides inspiring the OT prophets, the Holy Spirit was also busy preparing 'the people of the poor' for the coming of the Messiah; and this work was completed by the supposedly 'last prophet' John the Baptizer:

 "718  John is 'Elijah [who] must come.' The fire of the Spirit dwells in him and makes him the forerunner of the coming Lord. In John, the precursor, the Holy Spirit completes the work of '[making] ready a people prepared for the Lord.'  719  John the Baptist is 'more than a prophet.' In him, the Holy Spirit concludes his speaking through the prophets. John completes the cycle of prophets begun by Elijah. He proclaims the imminence of the consolation of Israel; he is the 'voice' of the Consoler who is coming. As the Spirit of truth will also do, John 'came to bear witness to the light.' In John's sight, the Spirit thus brings to completion the careful search of the prophets and fulfills the longing of the angels." (CCC 207).

 Now if John is the last of the prophets, does not the CCC contradict itself by referring to the prophets who wrote the New Testament books? Indeed, prophecy did not end with John, and we need only refer to Paul's epistles to see that the Christian prophets (including Paul himself) continued to play a vital role in the early history of the churches. Moreover, the prophets did not cease to be active among the People of God after the Apostolic Age; and even in the history of 'the Church of the Poisoned Mind and Twisted Heart' there are prophets to be found (eg. Savonarola and J.H.Newman, to name just two). The fact that the Romish anti-church is unable to recognize its own prophets for what they are can only mean that the Spirit which animates her is not the Spirit of Truth (ie. She who inspires the prophets) at all, but rather the Spirit of Lies (which is the spirit of the Wicked One).

17. A Discourse on Spirit & Trinity.

  In Latin Pneumatology the Holy Spirit was seen as the natural product or radiance of the mutual loving communion of the Heavenly Father and the 'only begotten' Son. This Augustinian theology "thus uses a symmetrical representational model, according to which the movement of trinitarian life is rounded off in the Holy Spirit in a kind of circular movement" (Kas 216). But how can this truth be communicated in a simple image? In G.Greene's wonderful book 'Monsignor Quixote' there is a scene that beautifully sums up the popular view of the Holy Spirit. During one of their frequent rest stops by the side of the road, Sancho at one point asks Father Quixote: "Can you explain the Trinity to me? It's more than they could do at the Seminary." As they were in mid-process of consuming large quantities of a fine local Spanish wine, the good priest hit upon the means of clarification; he would illustrate the nature of the Trinity by means of three wine bottles. So he went to the car to fetch two full bottles, and placed them on the ground next to the bottle now in use (which was half full). Then he began his discourse on the nature of the Spirit. Gesturing at the three bottles, he told Sancho how it is that here we have three separate and distinct entities having a similar, but not exactly identical, shape and form. These are the three unique persons of the Trinity: Father, Son and Spirit; each with its own particular being and mission. Then, indicating the contents of the bottles, he explained that here is the essence of the Godhead: the shared divinity and love that unites the three and makes them one. Sancho was delighted (though not converted from Marxism by this analogy), and he could not help but notice that the Holy Spirit had only half of the 'divine juice' that the Father and Son had. Fr Quixote thereupon realized his horrible mistake and begged for forgiveness; but the fact remains that for most people 'some are more equal than others' ... even in the Godhead!

WORKS CITED

Aquinas, T.  Of God and His Creatures.  Trans. J. Rickaby.

      Westminster: Carroll Press, 1950.

Congar, Y.  I Believe in the Holy Spirit.  3 vols.

Cunliffe-Jones, H. A History of Christian Doctrine.

      Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark Ltd, 1978.

Greene, G.  Monsignor Quixote.

Harvey, V.A. A Handbook of Theological Terms.

      New York: Collier Books, 1964.

Heron, A.  The Holy Spirit.  Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983.

Holy See, The. Cathechism of the Catholic Church.

      New York: Doubleday, 1994.

Jones, R.M. Spiritual Reformers in the 16th and 17th Centuries.

      Boston: Beacon Press, 1914.

Kasper, W.  The God of Jesus Christ.  Trans. M.J. O'Connell.

      New York: Crossroad Publishing Company, 1984.

Kung & Moltmann; Eds.  Conflicts About the Holy Spirit.

      Concilium 128 (8,/1979).  New York: Seabury Press, 1979.

Menzies, R.P. The Development of Early Christian Pneumatology: With

   Special Reference to Luke-Acts.  Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991.

Schweizer, E. The Holy Spirit.  Trans. R. Fuller.

      Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980.

Williams, C.W. John Wesley's Theology Today.

      Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1960. 

But it is God who establishes us together with you in Christ and
who anointed us, who also sealed us and gave us the Spirit in
our hearts as a down payment. - 2Cor.1:21-22 / NETbible

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